The results indicated that pure avoidance motivation may induce distinct emotional fluctuations, which influence the feedback processing. However, compared to the other three groups, negative reinforcement elicited smaller FRN (the difference-wave measure) during the learning, stronger positive affect and joviality, and less fatigue after the learning, in which the difference between the negative and positive reinforcement groups was smaller. The results showed that there was no difference between groups in the dopamine-related learning bias. In addition, in order to evaluate the engagement of emotional activity in the different reinforcement processes, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-Expanded Form (PANAS-X) scales were applied before and after the experiment to detect the emotional changes. Ninety-four participants were randomly assigned into four groups: base (no money incentive), positive reinforcement (presentation of money rewards), negative reinforcement (removal of money losses), and combined reinforcement (money rewards and removal of money losses) groups. In a probabilistic learning task, we examined RPE signals in different reinforcement types using an electrophysiology index, namely, the feedback-related negativity (FRN). However, whether various reinforcement processes will induce distinct learning signals is still unclear. Previous studies showed that dopamine plays an important role in both positive and negative reinforcement. Reinforcement learning relies on the reward prediction error (RPE) signals conveyed by the midbrain dopamine system. ![]() 2School of Foreign Studies, Anhui Polytechnic University, Wuhu, China.1MOE Key Laboratory of Modern Teaching Technology, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an, China.Shuyuan Xu 1, Yuyan Sun 1, Min Huang 2, Yanhong Huang 2, Jing Han 1, Xuemei Tang 2* and Wei Ren 1*
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